Federalism: A comparative analysis between Switzerland and other federal countries
Federalism is a system of government in which powers are divided between a central government and various sub-national units of government, such as states, provinces or cantons. This model is based on the division of power and autonomy between different political units within a country and provides a mechanism for managing the cultural, political and economic diversity within a nation.
A bit of history
The origin of federal states traces back to complex processes, often reflecting intricate historical, political, and cultural dynamics. One of the earliest examples of a federal state can be found in the United States of America. During the American Revolutionary War, the necessity for collaboration and unity in defense and trade among the thirteen separate colonies led to the formation of a federal state. The US Constitution of 1787 is the cornerstone of the United States as the first modern federal state, clearly defining the division of powers between the federal government and the states.
The success and stability of the United States inspired other countries worldwide to adopt similar forms of federal government. Federalism became an attractive model for addressing diversity and promoting national unity in many countries, preserving regional and cultural identities while fostering national cohesion.
The global spread of federalism occurred in the 20th century, with notable exceptions and regional differences. In Europe, Switzerland is an early model of a federation that emerged in the 19th century, while Germany and Austria adopted federal constitutions after World War II. Similarly, the Commonwealth and countries like Australia, Canada, and India chose federalism to accommodate their geographical size and cultural and linguistic diversity.
In Latin America, countries such as Brazil, Venezuela, Argentina, and Mexico embraced federalism to address the challenges of administering large territories with diverse population groups. Federalism allows them, above all, to handle regional and local issues more efficiently while ensuring a coherent national framework.
In the African context, Nigeria stands out as an example of a federation where the division of power between the central government and the states helps manage a diverse population in a vast territory. Similarly, although technically not a federal state in the traditional sense, South Africa introduced a highly decentralized system known as the “government of national unity” after the end of apartheid in 1994. This model promotes democratic participation at the local and regional levels while addressing the specific issues of different communities within the country.
In summary, federalism has become a globally adopted model of governance that reflects the complexity and diversity of modern societies, providing an institutional framework that promotes democratic participation and efficient management of regional resources and identities.
Federalism in Brief
Federalism has several advantages that can contribute to the stability and prosperity of a country:
Democratic Participation: Federalism allows for more direct and meaningful participation of citizens in local and regional governance. With power decentralized, decisions can be made closer to the affected population, enabling stronger representation and involvement of citizens in political life.
Adaptability: Federalism enables greater flexibility and adaptability to the varied needs and preferences of different regions or states within the country. This means that policies can be tailored to the specific local, cultural, and economic realities of each region.
Preservation of Diversity: In countries with significant cultural, linguistic, ethnic, or religious diversity, federalism can help preserve and promote this diversity. By allowing different regions to govern their internal affairs, federalism promotes respect for and protection of the cultural and linguistic identities of diverse communities within the country.
Political Stability: Federalism can contribute to political stability by creating a governance system that balances power between the central and local levels. This balance can reduce tensions between the central government and the regions, providing a mechanism for the peaceful resolution of disputes and differences of interest.
Administrative Efficiency: Federalism can lead to greater efficiency in public administration. With decisions made closer to the people affected, local and regional governments can better respond to the needs of citizens and provide effective and timely public services.
Balance of Power: Federalism contributes to a balance of power between the central government and local governments, preventing excessive concentration of power in a single institution or authority. This can help prevent abuse of power and ensure better protection of the rights and freedoms of citizens.
In conclusion, federalism provides an institutional framework that promotes democratic participation, cultural diversity, political stability, and administrative efficiency, contributing to the prosperity and cohesion of a country.
Switzerland
Swiss federalism is widely recognized as one of the most successful and functional models in the world. This federal system, based on the division of powers between the Confederation and the 26 cantons, has ensured political, economic, and social stability in the country. Let’s take a closer look at the key features of this system:
Federal Structure:
Switzerland consists of 26 cantons, each enjoying extensive autonomy. Each canton has its own constitution, government, and parliament and is responsible for local matters such as education, health, justice, urban planning, and culture. Some cantons also have direct democratic institutions such as referendums and citizen initiatives, allowing citizens to participate directly in decision-making.
Federal Government Responsibilities:
The Swiss Federal Government, based in Bern, controls matters of national interest such as foreign policy, defense, currency policy, social policy, and national infrastructure. It is also responsible for issues of common interest to the cantons, such as regulating telecommunications and transportation.
Principle of Subsidiarity:
Fundamental to Swiss federalism is the principle of subsidiarity. This principle states that decisions should be made at the most local level possible. Accordingly, responsibilities are delegated to the cantonal or municipal level unless they have a clearly national or supranational character.
National Cohesion:
Despite the autonomy granted to the cantons, Switzerland maintains strong national cohesion and a sense of national identity. This is promoted by federal institutions such as the army, the national railway system, and the central banking system. Furthermore, direct democracy allows citizens to actively participate in the political process and influence decisions at the national and cantonal levels.
Diversity Management:
Swiss federalism effectively manages the linguistic, cultural, and political diversity of the country. With four national languages (German, French, Italian, and Romansh) and a variety of cultural and political traditions, Swiss federalism is an effective mechanism for respecting and preserving diversity within the nation.
Diverse Tax Policies:
In Swiss federalism, cantons enjoy extensive autonomy, including the authority to set tax rates and the method of tax collection. This tax autonomy results in considerable diversity between cantons regarding the applied tax system.
Some cantons prefer to maintain relatively low tax rates to attract businesses and residents, creating an economic environment that favors investment and economic growth. Others, however, opt for higher tax rates to finance more extensive public services or to meet the specific needs of their population.
Differences in cantonal tax policies can significantly affect the quality of public services offered, overall economic attractiveness, and distribution of national wealth. However, tax competition between cantons can also pose challenges, such as a race to lower tax rates to attract businesses and high-income individuals.
Among the wealthiest Swiss cantons are Zurich, Geneva, and Basel-Stadt. These regions are characterized by their strong economic base and the presence of large international companies and financial institutions. Their strategic geographic location and business-friendly policies contribute to their economic prosperity and attractiveness to residents and investors.
Referendum
The referendum is a cornerstone of Swiss democracy and an important instrument through which citizens can influence the country’s political decisions. In Switzerland, there are two types of referendums: mandatory referendums and optional referendums.
Mandatory Referendums: Most laws and regulations passed by the Swiss Parliament come into effect without the need for a popular vote. However, in some cases, decisions must also be subjected to a mandatory referendum. Unlike the optional referendum, in these cases, no signature collection is required: the referendum is automatic.
Optional Referendums: In Switzerland, the Parliament enacts laws, most of which come into force without the need for a popular vote. Most laws are subject to the optional referendum, meaning that the people vote only if a referendum against a new law or its amendment is initiated. These referendums can take place at the national, cantonal, or municipal levels. If a committee at the federal level collects 50,000 valid signatures within 100 days of the publication of the law, the law in question will be submitted to the people for a vote. The Swiss Parliament also votes on normative legal acts that are not laws, such as decisions on international treaties. Some of these normative legal acts can also be subject to the optional referendum.
The referendum plays an important role in federalism by giving citizens the opportunity to directly influence political decisions at various levels, including national, federal, and municipal levels. It is used to vote on constitutional matters, national laws, international agreements, and regional issues. At the municipal level, the referendum can cover topics such as urban planning, local taxes, public services, and environmental issues. In a federal context, the referendum helps maintain the balance of power between the central government, federal units, and local communities and ensures citizen participation in decision-making at all levels.
Swiss federalism is a successful model of decentralized governance based on subsidiarity, which promotes democratic participation, local autonomy, and national cohesion. The combination of cantonal autonomy and national solidarity has shown that federalism can be an effective tool for addressing complexity and diversity in a national context.
Germany
Federalism in Germany is a fundamental element of the country’s political organization, characterized by the division of powers between the federal government and the 16 federal states, each of which has its own constitution, government, parliament and judicial system.
The federal states have extensive autonomy in their internal affairs, such as education, police, local government, justice, culture and the environment. The federal government, based in Berlin, is responsible for matters of national and supranational interest, such as foreign policy, national defence, economic and monetary policy, international relations, domestic legislation and relations with international organizations. Cooperation between the federal government and the federal states is of fundamental importance, and the “Minister Presidents’ Conference” is an important body in which the heads of government of the federal states work together on issues of national and international policy. The principle of subsidiarity states that decisions should be taken at the lowest possible level, and the Federal Constitutional Court plays a key role in ensuring the balance of power between the federal government and the federal states, settling constitutional disputes and safeguarding the rights of the federal states. German federalism promotes political participation and stability by adapting to the needs and challenges of the country.
Austria
Austria is a federal republic consisting of 9 federal states, the Länder. Austrian federalism forms the basis of the country’s political organization and provides for a clear division of powers between the federal government and the federal states.
The federal government, based in Vienna, is responsible for matters of national and supranational interest, including foreign policy, national defense, public finance, economic policy and national regulation. It is also responsible for maintaining international relations and Austria’s participation in international organizations.
Austria’s federal states enjoy extensive autonomy and have control over many domestic matters, such as education, culture, health, social affairs, spatial planning and environmental protection. Each federal state has its own constitution, government and parliament, which deal with internal affairs and region-specific issues.
In addition, Austria has adopted the principle of subsidiarity, according to which decisions should be made at the lowest possible level close to the citizens. This principle promotes democratic participation at local and regional level and ensures that decisions are made in the most appropriate framework.
Austrian federalism is also characterized by its system of cooperation and coordination between the federal government and the provinces. The Provincial Governors’ Conference, which is made up of the provincial governors and the Federal Chancellor, plays an important role in promoting cooperation and cohesion between the different levels of government.
However, Austrian federalism is not without its problems. Tensions between the federal government and the provinces, as well as between the individual provinces themselves, can arise in matters of competence and finance. Dealing effectively with these tensions requires constant dialog and negotiation between the parties involved.
Austrian federalism is a decentralized system of government that aims to promote democratic participation, regional autonomy and cooperation between the federal government and the Länder. Its effectiveness depends on balancing the interests and competencies of the different levels of government to ensure the well-being and development of the nation as a whole.
Belgium
Belgium is a federal constitutional monarchy characterized by a complex division of power between the federal government, the regions and the linguistic communities. The Belgian monarchy was established in 1830, with a king or queen as the country’s head of state.
Currently, the Belgian King is Philip, who primarily has a symbolic and ceremonial role. His powers are limited by the constitution and his main task is to ensure the unity and continuity of the state and to serve as a figurehead for the Belgian people.
Belgian federalism is based on the division of the country into regions and linguistic communities, each of which has a certain degree of political autonomy. The three regions of Belgium are the Flemish Region, the Brussels-Capital Region and the Walloon Region. The linguistic communities include the Flemish community, the French community and the German-speaking community.
The Belgian regions have control over issues such as the regional economy, the environment, spatial planning and education. The linguistic communities, on the other hand, are responsible for issues relating to culture, education and cultural institutions.
Belgian federalism was created to meet the different needs and identities of the country’s linguistic and regional communities. However, this complex structure has also led to challenges in ensuring the efficient functioning of government and the management of internal relations between the various federal entities.
The Belgian King, as a figure of national unity, can play an important role in promoting cooperation and cohesion between the country’s different regions and linguistic communities. His presence can help to promote dialog and solidarity between Belgians of different linguistic and cultural origins.
The Belgian constitutional monarchy plays a symbolic and representative role within the federal context of Belgium. Belgian federalism, with its autonomous regions and linguistic communities, strives to respect and protect the country’s diversity while promoting national unity and cohesion.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina is a federal republic in south-eastern Europe whose political system was shaped by the Dayton Agreement of 1995, which ended the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina. These agreements created a complex federal system of government comprising autonomous units and central institutions.
Historically, Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of a complex mixture of different ethnic groups, mainly Bosniaks (Bosnian Muslims), Serbs and Croats. After the war in the 1990s, the country is divided into two large entities: the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina with a Bosniak and Croat majority and the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Republika Srpska) with a Serb majority. Each entity has its own government, its own parliament and its own legal system.
At the federal level, Bosnia and Herzegovina has central institutions, including the presidency, which is composed of three members representing the country’s individual ethnic groups, and the parliament, known as the Parliamentary Assembly. These institutions deal with matters that affect the entire country, such as foreign policy, defense and finance.
The current political situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina is characterized by a complex web of relationships between the entities and the central government. However, the country’s political system is often paralyzed by ethnic divisions, conflicting interests and an effective fragmentation of power. Ethnic and political tensions remain a constant challenge and the effectiveness of the federal system has been repeatedly put to the test. There have also been discussions about possibly strengthening the central government to better address the country’s challenges, but such proposals are often met with resistance from local entities and political groups.In summary, Bosnia and Herzegovina continues to face major challenges in maintaining a functioning federal system that reconciles the needs of different ethnic communities and promotes political and social stability in the country.
United States
Federalism in the United States is one of the fundamental principles of the country’s political system. It is based on the division of powers between the federal government and the 50 states that make up the Union. The US Constitution clearly defines the powers reserved to the federal government, including national defense, money printing and foreign policy. On the other hand, the states are given control over issues such as education, criminal justice and marriage.
A special aspect of American federalism is the concept of “sovereign autonomy”. This principle grants the federal states extensive freedom of self-government while at the same time subject to the federal constitution. This means that states have the power to enact laws and policies on a wide range of issues that directly affect their citizens, such as legislation in the areas of education, healthcare, civil justice and economic development.
State autonomy is enshrined in the Tenth Amendment of the US Constitution, which states that all powers not expressly delegated to the federal government are reserved to the states or to the people. This principle of state sovereignty has been the subject of debate and interpretation throughout U.S. history and has influenced the relationship between the federal government and the states in various political, social and economic matters.
A tangible example of state sovereign autonomy is the ability of each state to enact laws that reflect the preferences and values of its citizens, although these laws can vary greatly from state to state. For example, while some states may legalize marijuana for recreational purposes, others may ban it altogether.
Furthermore, federalism in the United States is also expressed through the system of checks and balances of power between the federal government and the states, ensuring that no one level of government gains too much dominance over the others. This balance of power is fundamental to the preservation of democracy and individual liberty in the United States.
Canada
Canadian federalism forms the basis of the country’s political system, which is a federal constitutional monarchy consisting of 10 provinces and 3 territories. This system was established by the Constitution of 1867 and subsequent amendments. The King of the United Kingdom, currently Charles III, is also the King of Canada and the country’s representative head of state. However, the powers of the monarchy are mainly symbolic and ceremonial, while the Government of Canada is led by representatives elected by the people.
The federal government, based in Ottawa, is responsible for national and supranational affairs such as defense, foreign policy, economic regulation, monetary policy and immigration. It is also responsible for relations with the provinces and territories.
The provinces and territories enjoy considerable autonomy in their respective areas of responsibility. For example, they are responsible for important areas such as education, health, civil law, economic development and the environment. This federal structure allows for flexibility in adapting policies and laws to the specific needs of each region.
A characteristic aspect of Canadian federalism is the concept of “asymmetry”. This means that some provinces have more autonomy than others. For example, Quebec, with its strong French cultural and linguistic identity, has been given more authority over language and culture than other provinces. This asymmetry reflects the challenges and complexity of dealing with cultural and linguistic diversity in Canada.
Canadian federalism is based on a clear division of powers between the federal government and the provinces/territories. This system encourages democratic participation, respects regional and cultural diversity, and promotes Canada’s political and economic stability. The constitutional monarchy, while symbolic, remains an important element of the country’s political structure.
Mexico
Mexican federalism forms the basis of Mexico’s political organization, a federal republic consisting of 31 states and one federal district, which includes the capital Mexico City. This political system was introduced by the Mexican constitution of 1917 and provides for a clear division of power between the federal government and the states.
The federal government, based in Mexico City, is responsible for matters of national and supranational interest, including defense, foreign policy, national security, economic policy and the management of natural resources at the national level. It is also responsible for regulating key sectors such as telecommunications, energy and infrastructure.
Mexican states such as Jalisco, Nuevo León and Puebla enjoy extensive autonomy and are responsible for a wide range of domestic issues, including education, health, environment, justice and infrastructure development. This autonomy allows the states to adopt policies and laws that reflect the needs and preferences of their citizens, taking into account regional and cultural characteristics.
Mexican federalism is also characterized by the existence of a federal district in which the capital Mexico City is located. This district has a special administrative organization with a separate local government and its own legislation that deals with issues specific to the capital.
However, Mexican federalism is not without its challenges. The complexity of the relationship between the federal government and the states, as well as the socioeconomic and cultural differences between the different regions of the country, can lead to tensions and difficulties in collaborating and jointly managing resources and public policies.
To summarize, Mexican federalism is based on the division of powers between the federal government and the states, with the aim of ensuring an efficient national government and responding to the needs of local communities throughout the country. The management of intergovernmental relations continues to be a major challenge for Mexico when it comes to achieving cohesion and equity in its political and institutional system.
St. Kitts and Nevis
St. Kitts (or St. Christopher) and Nevis is an island nation in the Caribbean consisting of two main islands: St. Kitts and Nevis. Both islands enjoy the status of federal states within the political structure of St. Kitts and Nevis.
Each island has its own local government, which consists of an autonomous administration that takes care of island-specific matters such as education, health, infrastructure and local administration. These local governments are responsible for managing the day-to-day affairs of their respective islands and respond directly to the needs and concerns of the population.
Despite the autonomy of the individual islands, St. Kitts and Nevis also has a centralized federal government that deals with matters of national interest. This federal government handles matters of national defense, foreign relations, the economy and other issues that affect the entire state of St. Kitts and Nevis.
The federal structure of St. Kitts and Nevis allows the two islands to retain a degree of autonomy and to govern according to their local needs and characteristics, while cooperating and coordinating their policies and decisions on matters of common interest through the federal government.
This federal model helps to strike a balance between local autonomy and the need for a strong central government to address the challenges and pursue the common goals of the entire State of St. Kitts and Nevis. In this way, the federal structure helps to ensure effective governance and equal representation of all communities in the Caribbean archipelago.
Argentina
Argentina is a federal republic consisting of 23 provinces and the autonomous city of Buenos Aires. Argentine federalism is based on a division of powers between the federal government and the provinces, whereby the provinces are granted a certain degree of autonomy.
The federal government, based in Buenos Aires, is responsible for foreign policy, national defense, economic policy and public finances. It is also responsible for the country’s international relations as well as monetary and trade policy.
The Argentine provinces, such as Buenos Aires, Córdoba and Santa Fe, enjoy extensive autonomy and are responsible for many domestic policy issues. These include education, health, justice, the environment, urban planning and regional economic development. Each province has its own constitution, government and legislature, which deal with internal affairs and region-specific issues.
Argentine federalism was introduced to take account of the country’s great geographical, cultural and economic diversity. However, this federal structure has also led to challenges in ensuring effective coordination and cooperation between the central government and the provinces, as well as between the different provinces themselves.
Tensions between the central government and the provinces can arise from issues of responsibility, funding and resources. Coordination between the central government and the provinces is essential for tackling socio-economic challenges and promoting sustainable development throughout the country.
Argentine federalism is a key element of the country’s political organization, which aims to distribute power fairly and take into account the specific needs of the different regions. The effective management of intergovernmental relations remains a major challenge for Argentina in order to promote national cohesion and harmonious development throughout the country.
Brazil
Brazilian federalism is the political system of Brazil, a federal republic consisting of 26 states and one federal district, including the capital Brasilia. Brazil’s federal structure was mainly established in the 1988 Constitution, which defines the exclusive powers of the federal government, the states and the municipalities.
The federal government, based in Brasilia, is responsible for matters of national and supranational interest, such as defense, foreign policy, the national economy and the management of natural resources of national importance. It is also responsible for regulating key sectors such as telecommunications, energy and infrastructure.
The Brazilian states, on the other hand, enjoy extensive autonomy and have powers in areas such as health, education, public safety, local government, justice and the environment. This autonomy enables the states to enact policies and laws that are tailored to their specific regional, cultural and economic needs.
Municipalities or local government units are responsible for basic services such as primary education, primary health care, road management and land use planning. They may also have a certain degree of financial autonomy to ensure the effective operation of local public services.
An important element of Brazilian federalism is the promotion of balance between the different regions of the country. This balance is often sought through regional development measures, financial transfers between the federal government and the less developed states, and public investment programs to reduce economic and social disparities between regions.
However, it should be noted that Brazilian federalism is not without its challenges. Socio-economic and cultural differences between states, as well as the country’s complex political structure, can lead to tensions and difficulties in cooperation and the joint management of resources and public policies.
In summary, Brazilian federalism is based on a balance between the central authority of the federal government and the autonomy of the states and municipalities, with the aim of promoting harmonious development and democratic participation at the national level.
Venezuela
The structure of Venezuelan federalism reflects the division of power between the federal government, the states, the capital district and the federal dependencies. This system is designed to ensure an appropriate balance between centralized power and the autonomy of local units.
The federal government, based in Caracas, handles matters of national interest, including foreign policy, national defense, international relations and economic issues of national importance. It is also responsible for matters of common national interest, such as interstate trade and transportation infrastructure.
The 23 states have a degree of autonomy in dealing with matters of local interest. These include education, health, justice, regional economic development, urban planning and culture. Each state has its own constitution, government and legislature, which deal with internal affairs and promote the development of the respective region.
The capital district, which includes Caracas, serves as the seat of the federal government and is of particular importance as the political and economic center of the country. It is subject to special legislation aimed at ensuring the proper functioning of the central institutions and taking into account the specific needs of the national capital.
Federal dependencies are special areas of the country that enjoy a special status. These may be islands or remote areas with special needs and characteristics that require special treatment by the federal government.
It is important to note that the specific character of Venezuelan federalism can be influenced by various factors, including the country’s political history, regional culture, internal political dynamics and the needs of different communities. This federal model seeks to strike a balance between local autonomy and the need for a strong central government to ensure national cohesion and the well-being of the entire Venezuelan people.
India
Indian federalism forms the basis of India’s political organization, a federal republic consisting of 28 states and 8 union territories. This political system was laid down in the Indian Constitution of 1950, which regulates the legislative and administrative powers of both the central government and the state governments.
The federal government, based in New Delhi, is responsible for matters of national and supranational interest, such as national defense, foreign policy, internal security, national economy and management of the country’s natural resources.
Indian states such as Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu have autonomy in a variety of domestic matters, including education, health, agriculture, judiciary and urban planning. This autonomy enables the states to adopt policies and laws that reflect the needs and preferences of their citizens and take into account the cultural, linguistic and religious diversity in India.
Indian federalism is characterized by a high degree of cultural, linguistic and religious diversity in the federal states and union territories. This diversity is one of India’s distinguishing features and makes the principle of state autonomy and peaceful conflict resolution a crucial factor. The Indian government has taken several measures to promote harmony among different communities and ensure respect for minority rights.
In addition, India has faced and continues to face the challenge of managing tensions between the central government and the states as well as between the states themselves. Cooperation and coordination between the central government and the states is crucial for the proper functioning of Indian federalism and for addressing the country’s socio-economic challenges.
To summarize, Indian federalism is a complex political system that seeks a balance between the central government and the states, taking into account the rich cultural and social diversity of the country. Its effectiveness depends on the ability of democratic institutions to work together and respond to the needs and aspirations of Indian citizens across the country.
Nepal
Nepal became a federal state in 2015 when a new constitution was passed, transforming the country from an absolute monarchy to a federal republic. This change was the culmination of years of political struggles and movements to democratize the country.
The history of federalism in Nepal is characterized by ethnic, social and political conflicts. Before becoming a federal state, Nepal was an absolute monarchy ruled by the Shah dynasty and later by the Rana dynasty. This centralized system led to significant economic and social inequalities and tensions between the country’s ethnic groups and regions.
In 2006, a popular uprising led by political parties and civic movements led to the end of the monarchy and the beginning of a transition process towards a more inclusive and representative democracy. During this transition period, there were calls for greater autonomy for Nepal’s different ethnic and cultural regions.
With the new constitution of 2015, Nepal became a federal republic divided into seven provinces, each with its own government and legislative assembly. This federal system should ensure greater participation and representation of local communities and promote balanced development across the country.
However, the implementation of federalism in Nepal faces several obstacles, including the lack of financial and human resources at the provincial level, weak institutional capacity and political tensions between the central government and the provinces.
The current situation of federalism in Nepal is characterized by both challenges and opportunities. On the road to effective and inclusive federal governance, the country needs to make efforts to address economic and social inequalities between regions, improve institutional capacity at the provincial level and promote cooperation and collaboration between the central government and the provinces to ensure sustainable development and social peace.
Russia
The Russian Federation is the largest country in the world and consists of 85 federal states, which include republics, regions, oblasts and federal cities. In each of these states, federalism is a mechanism for managing regional and cultural diversity within the country, but the federal government, based in Moscow, handles national affairs such as foreign policy, defense and economic matters.
However, Russian federalism has come under criticism, with some issues concerning central control and the limited autonomy of the regions, such as the appointment of governors (in the past, the Russian president had the power to appoint the regions’ governors, which limited the regions’ political autonomy and could have a negative impact on local democratic representation), economic disparity (some regions of Russia, such as Moscow and St. Petersburg, enjoy greater economic prosperity), and the fact that federalism does not always work in practice. The federalism of some regions, such as Moscow and St. Petersburg, enjoy greater economic prosperity than other, less developed regions, and this economic disparity has fueled tensions and made it difficult for some regions to manage their resources efficiently), central government interference (on several occasions, the Russian central government has interfered in the internal affairs of the regions and restricted their political and decision-making autonomy).
Malaysia
Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy consisting of 13 states and 3 federal territories. The head of state is the king, known as Yang di-Pertuan Agong, selected from among the nine sultans of the Malaysian states every five years. Currently, the reigning ruler is Sultan Ibrahim Iskandar of Johor, who took office on January 31, 2024. The role of the monarchy is primarily ceremonial and representative, serving as a symbol of national unity and historical continuity. The monarch is also tasked with serving as the guardian of the constitution, with limited powers defined by the country’s Basic Law.
Malaysia is divided into states and federal territories, each with some autonomy in managing its own internal affairs. The states have control over areas such as education, health, and culture, while the federal government manages domestic issues such as defense, foreign policy, and the economy. This balance between regional autonomy and central control is enshrined in the Malaysian constitution, promoting cultural diversity and democratic participation at the regional level.
The monarch has key constitutional powers, such as appointing the prime minister and dissolving parliament on the advice of the prime minister. The federal government, headed by the prime minister, manages national issues such as foreign policy, defense and the economy. The states and federal territories work together to ensure the smooth functioning of the country, with the federal territories directly administered by the central government.
In sum, the Malaysian constitutional monarchy coexists with a federal system of government, where states enjoy a degree of autonomy within a larger national structure. This model of government reflects the complexity and diversity of Malaysian society while ensuring political stability and national cohesion.
Pakistan
Pakistan is a federal republic consisting of 4 provinces, 2 federated territories, and federally administered tribal regions. Pakistani federalism is based on a division of power between the federal government and the provinces, with some autonomy granted at the provincial level.
The federal government, based in Islamabad, has jurisdiction over matters of foreign policy, national defense, internal security, economic policy and public finance. It also manages the country’s international relations, monetary policy and trade policy.
Pakistan’s provinces, such as Punjab, Sindh, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and Balochistan, enjoy broad autonomy and have control over many domestic issues. These include education, health, justice, local economic development, environment and land use planning. Each province has its own constitution, government and legislature, which deal with internal affairs and issues specific to the region.
The federated territories, which include Islamabad National Capital Territory and Federal Territory of Administered Tribal Areas, are directly administered by the federal government.
Pakistani federalism was established to reflect the country’s ethnic, cultural and linguistic diversity while promoting national unity. However, as in many other countries with a complex federal structure, tensions and challenges can arise in ensuring effective coordination and cooperation between the central government and the provinces.
Resource management and equitable distribution of funds are often a source of contention between the federal government and the provinces. Effective coordination is essential to address socio-economic challenges and to ensure sustainable development throughout the country.
In conclusion, Pakistani federalism is a fundamental element of the country’s political organization, which aims to ensure equitable distribution of power and address the specific needs of different regions. Managing intergovernmental relations remains a priority for Pakistan in pursuing national cohesion and the welfare of the entire country.
United Arab Emirates (UAE)
The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is a distinctive example of federalism in the Persian Gulf region. The UAE federation consists of seven emirates: Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm Al-Quwain, Fujairah, and Ras Al Khaimah. Each emirate is headed by a sheikh or emir, who presides over his or her local government and has jurisdiction over many issues of local concern, such as education, health, urban planning and culture.
However, some matters of national concern, such as defense, foreign policy and natural resources, fall under the jurisdiction of the UAE federal government, which is based in Abu Dhabi. The federal government is responsible for the administration and regulation of these issues on a national basis. In addition, the UAE Supreme Council, composed of the seven sovereigns of the emirates, is the supreme body of the federal government. This council elects the president and vice president of the UAE and sets the general policies of the country.
Federalism in the UAE reflects a balance between the autonomy of the emirates and the authority of the federal government. Despite the differences among the emirates, the UAE maintains strong national cohesion and solidarity among the emirates. This cohesion has been fundamental to the country’s economic, social and political progress, contributing to its stability and development in the regional and global context.
Iraq
Iraq became a federal state after the fall of Saddam Hussein’s regime in 2003. The federal structure was introduced primarily to try to manage ethnic and religious divisions within the country by giving the various regions greater political and administrative autonomy.
Iraq’s history as a federal state has been marked by a series of challenges and conflicts. Northern regions, particularly Iraqi Kurdistan, have sought greater autonomy and independence, pushing for control over their own internal affairs, including the management of oil resources.
In 2005, a new Constitution was approved in Iraq, which established the legal framework for the country’s federal system. The Constitution recognizes the autonomy of regions and provinces, allowing them to form local governments and control their own natural resources.
However, despite the constitutional framework, federal Iraq has faced numerous challenges. Political and social tensions between different ethnic and religious factions, along with the struggle for control of resources, have led to conflict and instability in various parts of the country.
In Iraqi Kurdistan, for example, there have been ongoing tensions with the central government over control of oil resources and the issue of independence. In the rest of the country, ethnic and religious divisions have fueled violence and instability, with militant groups and militias seeking to influence territorial and political control.
The current situation in federal Iraq is complex and characterized by ongoing challenges. Despite some progress in establishing democratic institutions and establishing principles of regional autonomy, the country continues to struggle with internal divisions, corruption, lack of security, and political fragmentation. Stability and national cohesion remain difficult goals to achieve, and Iraq’s future as a federal state remains uncertain.
Ethiopia
Ethiopia is a parliamentary republic with a federal character, consisting of eleven regional states (Kililoch) and two independent municipalities (Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa). Ethiopian federalism emerged after the fall of the Menghistu regime and the separation of Eritrea from Ethiopia after a civil war between 1991 and 1993.
The Ethiopian Parliament is bicameral, consisting of the House of Representatives of the People, with 547 seats by direct suffrage, and the House of Federation, with 108 representatives chosen by regional assemblies. Elections are held every five years.
The Prime Minister is elected by both chambers, with a proposal by the President of the Republic from among the members of the House of People’s Representatives. The President of the Republic, as a ceremonial figure, plays a primarily representative role.
Federalism in Ethiopia arose to manage ethnic tensions and demands for autonomy from different regions of the country. The 2021 elections saw the victory of the Prosperity Party, after 30 years of rule by the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed Ali, elected in 2018, has initiated reforms to modernize the country and pacify relations with Eritrea.
Ethiopian federalism, with its regional structure and democratic elections, seeks to promote national cohesion and regional autonomy while addressing the country’s political, economic and social challenges.
South Africa
South Africa is not formally a federal state, but rather is a republic with a highly decentralized system of government. After the end of apartheid in 1994, South Africa adopted a system known as the “government of national unity.” This system was designed to ensure democratic participation at the local and regional levels, as well as the management of community-specific issues within the national context.
Historically, South Africa has been characterized by deep racial divisions and systems of government based on the oppression of the black majority by the white minority. With the end of apartheid, South Africa sought to build a political system that reflected the diversity of its people and promoted equality and social justice.
The 1996 South African Constitution established the framework for the government of national unity. Under this Constitution, power is shared between the national central government and provincial and local governments. South Africa’s nine provinces enjoy some autonomy in administering their own affairs, including the management of key services such as education, health, and economic development.
However, despite this decentralized structure, South Africa continues to face significant challenges. Economic inequality persists, with socioeconomic disparities persisting among different communities. In addition, the country struggles with problems such as unemployment, crime, and corruption.
South Africa’s current political situation is complex, with the African National Congress (ANC) dominating the political scene since 1994 but facing criticism for its handling of government and corruption cases. There are also other political forces and civil movements seeking to influence change and address the country’s challenges.
In summary, although South Africa is not a federal state in the traditional sense, its political structure reflects a commitment to decentralization and democratic participation at the local and regional levels. However, the country continues to face significant challenges on its journey toward a more just, equitable, and prosperous society for all its citizens.
Nigeria
Nigeria is divided into 36 states and a Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. Nigerian federalism is based on the 1999 Constitution and provides for a clear division of power between the federal government and the states. The federal government holds authority over crucial issues such as national defense, foreign policy, and the economy. On the other hand, the states have control over their own local legislation and the management of natural resources within their borders. This arrangement allows for more adaptable management of local and regional issues while providing federal oversight and direction for matters of national significance.
Somalia
Somali federalism, adopted as a model of government to deal with the country’s complex political and social dynamics, involves the division of power between the central government and autonomous regions. These regions, including Puntland, Somaliland, Galmudug and others, enjoy a degree of autonomy in decision-making on local issues such as education, health, economic development and security.
However, Somalia has historically been plagued by serious challenges. Political instability, clan conflicts, insecurity and the presence of armed groups such as al-Shabaab undermine the country’s security and stability. Combating terrorism remains a major challenge for the central government and regional authorities.
In addition, Somalia is one of the poorest countries in the world, with serious problems of poverty, inequality and economic underdevelopment. Lack of financial and infrastructure resources limits the government’s ability to provide essential services to the population and promote sustainable development.
Economic and social disparities between different regions and communities are significant and can fuel internal tensions and conflicts. Somali federalism seeks to address these inequalities by promoting political participation and representation of the various communities, but challenges remain considerable.
The success of federalism in Somalia depends on the ability of the central government and autonomous regions to work together effectively to address internal challenges and promote political stability, security, and economic development throughout the country. National cohesion and inter-community dialogue are essential for the consolidation of federalism and the achievement of long-term peace and prosperity.
Australia
Australia represents a federal constitutional monarchy, consisting of six states and two territories. Australian federalism, defined by the 1901 Constitution, provides a political structure based on the division of powers between the federal government and the states, while also enshrining the role of the monarchy in the national context.
Australia’s constitutional monarchy is based on the sovereignty of the British Crown, with the monarch of the United Kingdom also serving as Australia’s head of state. Currently, King Charles III is the king of Australia, while the governor-general acts as his representative in the country. However, the powers of the monarchy are primarily symbolic and ceremonial, with the monarch acting on the advice of the elected government.
The federal government, based in Canberra, holds authority over matters of national and supranational concern, such as national defense, foreign policy, international trade and economic regulation. Australian states, such as New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland, have autonomy over a range of domestic issues, such as education, health, environment, justice and territorial planning.
However, Australia has faced the problem of federal asymmetry, with some states enjoying more autonomy than others, such as the state government of Victoria compared to others such as Queensland. This asymmetry can result from historical, cultural, economic or political factors specific to each state.
The dynamics of federal asymmetry can affect the relationship between federal and state governments and can create challenges in ensuring an equitable balance of power and resources among states. However, Australia continues to work to maintain a federal system that respects diversity and promotes effective governance and cooperation between levels of government.
In summary, Australian federalism is based on the division of powers between the federal government and the states, with a context of constitutional monarchy providing an element of continuity and symbolic representation in the country’s political system. Managing federal asymmetry remains a major challenge for Australia in pursuing cohesion and equity in its political and institutional system.
Federated States of Micronesia
The Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) is a federal republic located in the western Pacific Ocean, consisting of four main states: Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei, and Kosrae. These states enjoy a degree of political and administrative autonomy within the federal state structure.
Each state has its own local government and constitution, which manages internal state-specific issues such as education, health, infrastructure, and regional economic planning. State governments are responsible for making decisions on issues that directly affect the population and resources of the state.
However, the federal government of the Federated States of Micronesia, headquartered in Palikir, is responsible for matters of national interest involving the entire country. These include national defense, foreign relations, national economy, management of shared natural resources and other issues involving all states.
The federal government also coordinates and oversees issues involving more than one state and facilitates cooperation among the states to address common challenges and pursue shared goals.
The federal structure of the Federated States of Micronesia is designed to balance the autonomy of the states with the need for a strong central government to address issues that require national vision and action. This federal model allows the states to maintain their own identity and manage their own local issues, while at the same time promoting collaboration and cohesion among the states for the common good of the country as a whole.
Devolution and federalism
Devolution and federalism are both concepts that involve the transfer of political powers from a central authority to subordinate units, but they differ significantly:
Devolution: devolution is a process in which a central authority transfers certain legislative, executive or administrative powers to a regional or local level within a unitary state. However, the central authority retains control over central matters such as foreign policy, national defense and monetary policy. Examples of devolution include the United Kingdom with Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland and Spain with autonomous communities such as Catalonia and the Basque Country.
Federalism: Federalism is a system of government in which political powers are divided between a central government and regional governments or federal states, each of which has a constitutionally defined area of responsibility. In a federal system, regional units have a degree of political autonomy and can make independent decisions in areas such as education, healthcare and local legislation. Examples include the United States, Germany and Switzerland.
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom, officially known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, is an island nation in Western Europe whose territory consists of four constituent nations: England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.
British politics is determined by a parliamentary system with London as the capital and seat of government. The head of state is King Charles III, who plays a primarily symbolic role, while the legislative power lies with the British Parliament.
The United Kingdom is a unitary, non-federal state characterized by devolution, with some legislative and decision-making powers devolved from Westminster to parliaments or regional assemblies in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. These constituent states have the power to legislate on issues such as education, health, transport and justice, but remain part of the United Kingdom.
Spain
Politics in Spain is characterized by a constitutional system that combines elements of parliamentary democracy, autonomous federalism and constitutional monarchy. This form of government, which is based on the 1978 constitution, marks the country’s transition from the Franco dictatorship to a parliamentary democracy. Spain has a federal system in which the 17 autonomous communities and two autonomous cities enjoy a high degree of political, administrative and financial autonomy. Each region has its own regional government and parliament with legislative and executive powers, while the central government in Madrid retains control over matters of national interest. Spain is a constitutional monarchy with a king as head of state, currently Felipe VI, whose role is primarily symbolic and representative. Spain’s political system is based on a parliamentary democracy with a bicameral parliament that is directly elected by the citizens. The government is headed by a president or prime minister appointed by parliament. This system attempts to reconcile regional autonomy and national unity while ensuring that the democratic rights and fundamental freedoms of Spanish citizens are respected.
